What Do Lecturers Want?
Research
Anatomy of An Essay
Style
Referencing
Sample Bibliography
Summary
Increasing specialisation and the development of more career-oriented courses at universities tends to obscure the fact that what many employers want are basic skills. There are complaints from employer representatives that graduates lack two fundamental skills: the ability to communicate and to form a coherent argument. Essays test knowledge of subject material, but also test communication and argumentative ability. Many student essays may well display a sound knowledge of the area, but falter through lack of writing and argument skills.
Writing is hard. And it is not always easy to appreciate its value in an increasingly visual culture. Why should you read the newspaper if you can catch the news on TV? Why should you read a long scholarly book on Australian history if you can view a CD on a computer? Why write your own essay if you can download one from the Internet? (At this point I’ll stop giving you ideas). We read and write essays because the written word is still the best technology for constructing an argument, and culture is composed of a set of arguments. Is Henry Lawson’s view of the bush pessimistic? Is abortion morally wrong? Are we the product of genetics or environment? Is our trade deficit a serious problem? All cultural and professional arguments have relevance to you, and university training is above all other things aimed at enabling you to understand and competently enter into these arguments.
“I have some really good ideas, but I have problems getting them down on paper”. This is becoming an increasingly less credible excuse, as modern psycholinguistics suggests that you think in words and that if you don’t have the idea worked out in words already, then you probably don’t have an idea. Essays are the process by which you realise that this vague ‘idea’ that you have becomes increasingly elusive as you try to put it down on paper. This is why writing can be frustrating — it shows you that you really don’t have as many ideas as you assume. But on the positive side, writing down even your vague ideas is a start. This begins what is called an ‘iterative’ process, where you can gain distance from your ideas on paper, read them, criticise them, and then clarify them in your mind.
Topic:
What do lecturers want from an essay? Obviously
they want something on the topic. There is not much point in developing
a really interesting argument on the development of the llama in Peru
if the essay was supposed to be on the Peruvian political system (unless
of course you are drawing an ingenious connection between llamas and
politicians). Often the topic the lecturer gives you will be too large
to deal with in the length you have. You can often re-define the topic
of the essay, taking a narrower focus than the question might suggest.
You should consult the lecturer, and you will often find him or her
more than happy to have a more specific essay.
Criteria:
You should pay special attention to the essay question.
Does the question want you to describe, explain, evaluate, or compare
and contrast. These are quite different tasks, and you should consider
what each requires. You may also be given a criteria sheet for your
assessment. This will spell out the weighting given to different pieces
of assessment, and may also outline the allocation of marks for clarity,
research, organisation and so on.
Argument:
A crucial aspect of essays in the humanities is
the argument. This is what gives students stomach cramps, chills and
dizzy spells. Often there is the preconception that essays are about
regurgitating information, showing that you have absorbed a quotient
of knowledge. Surely that is enough? Well, no. Anyone can present information,
and it may well be possible to train a chimp to excise bits out of books
and stick them together in some sort of order. But an argument requires
someone really involved in the material, not just looking at it from
a bored and distant standpoint. You might ask how can I, a humble undergraduate,
presume to offer an argument about an area in which a great number of
academics work. Lecturers will know what X or Z have argued; what we
want to know is what you have to say. And you can argue in an informed
way because knowledge is not something that is fixed and accepted, but
is contested, or fought over.
No one can start an essay without the benefits of research. Research obviously gives you much of the basic information you need — for example, the facts about Peruvian politics of the last twenty years. But at university level you soon find that things are not as simple as you might hope. Most books will agree about fundamental facts, but few will agree what they mean. Some will argue that instability in Peruvian politics is a result of the unequal distribution of wealth, some will say that it is because of the corruption endemic to the country and some sources will argue it is the legacy of colonisation. All knowledge is interpretation, and academics disagree in their interpretations. So, unfortunately, you not only have to be aware of what went on in Peruvian politics, but what has been argued about what went on in Peruvian politics. If you know what historians have said, you will be ready to agree or disagree with them.
Finding
Research Materials:
There are two types of research materials you will
find it necessary to use. Books, with which you may be familiar, are
an essential research tool. Journals or periodicals are professional
magazines which carry a number of articles. Finding books on your research
topic is pretty easy. The ACU library has a computer catalogue into
which you can enter author, title or subject keywords. The computer
will indicate the location of the book and whether it is in the library
or has been taken out. Journal articles are a little more difficult.
Library catalogues do not record individual articles, only the names
of journals. Fortunately, there are bibliographical aids to help you.
The McAuley Library web page gives you access to a large collection
of on-line databases. In Australian Literature you will find AUSTLIT
extremely useful and the MLA Bibliography will be an essential tool
for Literature, Drama, and other Humanities subjects. It is possible
that if you enter Henry Lawson into AUSTLIT, for example, and fifty
articles about Lawson will be listed. It may list for example:
Blarney, Chris. “The Pessimism
of Lawson.” Southerly 15.1 (1988): 66-88.
Your
next step is to find the journal itself. It may be held by ACU, but
it may not. If it is not, a grand adventure to another library is in
store for you.
Other
Libraries:
Whatever university you work in, there is often
the need to go to a library elsewhere. This will involve time - allow
a full day if you are going to another library. The bad news is that
not all of these libraries will allow you to take books out. What they
allow is constantly changing, so you may need to ask while you are there.
All, however, have extensive photocopying resources. Only venture to
other libraries if you cannot find enough material at ACU. Often, resources
which would be quite valuable for assignments are left untouched on
ACU library shelves — use the computer catalogue but also browse the
shelves as you may well find useful material this way.
Using
Research Materials:
Very few people use academic works by reading them
from cover to cover. Learning to use the contents and index pages is
important. The ability to scan headings and the body of the text will
allow you to find the most relevant material. Once you have zeroed in
on the most relevant parts of the text you can take the time to read
them more carefully. You should be asking yourself:
·
Is
this relevant?
·
Can
I include this in my argument?
·
Do
I need to change my essay to encompass this new information?
When
taking notes it is very important to distinguish between summaries,
paraphrases and direct quotes. Always record the complete details of
the source including:
·
Author
or editor
·
Date
of publication
·
Title
of book/journal
·
for
books also write down the city of publication and publisher
·
for
journals also write down the volume, number and page numbers.
For any paraphrase or direct quote it is necessary to record the exact page numbers from which this information was taken.
Do not think of note taking as a passive activity. You should be asking questions of the information obtained, judging its value and logic, and being ready to query or criticise it.
Without being reductive it is possible to list parts of an essay and strategies to avoid and adopt:
The
Introduction:
It
is easier to list what not to do in an introduction than to argue what
you should do:
·
Don’t
repeat the question on the assignment sheet.
·
Don’t
start with a quote — it is a cliche.
·
Don’t
start with “Since the dawn of time...” or “As soon as people came out
of the trees...” or any other sentence which tries to trace your topic
to some cosmic origin.
·
Don’t
try to summarise all of the essay in the opening paragraph.
Some of the things you might do in an introduction are -
·
Clearly
introduce topic. You reader should have a fair idea of what the essay
is about by the end of the first paragraph.
·
You
should give the reader an idea of the argument you will be advancing.
·
You
may decide to outline how you are going to argue your point.
The main stylistic problem with student essays is overuse of procedural statements. These are sentences like ‘I am going to argue that...”. Introductions are particularly prone to this overuse of “I am going to do this...” or “This essay will discuss...”. On the other hand, these phrases can get you started if you are stuck. They make you decide exactly what it is you are trying to do. Use them to provide you and your reader with a sense of direction, but generally use these phrases economically.
The
Body in Question:
The body of the essay is where the work gets done.
It is here that you develop the argument and provide evidence. Structurally,
each paragraph should take one idea and develop it. Your general argument
might be that inequalities in the distribution of wealth in Peru has
caused a history of political unrest. One paragraph might be based on
proving that inequalities exist, one paragraph might analyse a particular
historical incident and so on. Each paragraph should be carefully looked
at to make sure it is aimed towards supporting the general argument,
and is not just padding.
Many student essays have paragraphs which are far too short. How can you develop an idea sufficiently in a thirty word paragraph? There is nothing wrong with longer paragraphs as long as they are developing one idea. (This paragraph is too short — and it looks silly on the page).
One sentence is not a paragraph (i.e this is not a paragraph).
Conclusion:
There is a difference between a summary and a conclusion.
A Summary would repeat the main points of your argument. But with a
conclusion this is not necessary — you simply have to bring the argument
to a logical conclusion. For example if you have argued that wealth
inequalities cause political instability in Peru, then you could conclude
that redistribution of wealth would lead to stability. Some lecturers
will welcome recommendatory type conclusions, where you suggest some
action might be taken. For other lecturers and areas this might be inappropriate.
Generally,
it is inadvisable to add new material in the conclusion. This tends
to give a sense of the author trying to shore up a weak argument at
the last moment. The only case where new material
may be appropriate is the recommendatory type conclusion mentioned above,
or where you want to raise a question or suggest paths for future investigation,
if competently done, this can construct the author as truly involved
with the topic.
University essays are generally fairly formal affairs. Not only is a relatively formal language required, but there is the expectation of a level of competency. Elementary spelling and typographical errors do not help the essay to look competent; however unfairly, small errors will cast doubt on the larger argument in the essay. Computer spellcheckers are far from perfect; for example if I had mistakenly keyed in ‘form’ instead of ‘from’ in this sentence, the computer would have quite happily accepted it.
There are a number of grammatical errors students seem to make which are so elementary as to really undermine the essay. Possessives are a case in point: the system in English is pretty simple.
| The bone of the dog = the dog’s bone. The bone of many dogs = the dogs’ bone. |
English signifies whether the possessor is plural or singular through moving the apostrophe. The only exception to this rule is ‘its’. When ‘its’ is used as in ‘its bone’, then an apostrophe is not used. This is to differentiate it from ‘it’s’ which is a contraction of ‘it is’.
| its = as in “its bone”, or “its windshield” it’s = “it’s a lovely day”, or “it’s broken” |
Not being able to spell a three letter word is a real shame.
Larger sentence structures can also be a problem, especially as poor grammar can obscure the meaning of a sentence or leave it ambiguous. The two most common problems with sentences are sentence fragments and comma splices. Sentence fragments as the name suggests are grammatically incomplete sentences. A complete sentence needs a particular type of verb to complete it. The sentence ‘While the other three examples do not show this trend’ is incomplete, even though it has a verb. The other main problem in writing is comma splices. These are cases where instead of using conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘however’ and so on to join two small sentences, a simple comma is used. An example is “Two small boys went to the beach, they had a good time”. The comma cannot join sentences and needs to be replaced here by something like ‘and’. It is possible you have good ideas but lose marks through poor sentence structure and grammar. But knowing how to write sentences is intimately tied to knowing how to connect ideas; if you cannot write a grammatical sentence then it is less likely that you can relate ideas successfully.
Presentation:
The aesthetic presentation of your work is extremely
important. If you hand in a paper that looks professionally presented
then it will look like you are approaching your subject with a high
degree of academic professionalism. There are some useful tips to help
you to create beautifully presented assignments every time:
1. Essays
should always be double spaced to allow for feedback comments.
2.
Only one side of the page
should be used.
3.
Never
use a silly font. This undermines the formality of your paper and makes
your work appear comic. Times New Roman is the most common font for
essays.
4. Cover
sheets must be used.
5.
Essays
should not be encased in plastic envelopes which seem designed to prevent
their easy removal.
6.
Wherever
it occurs, the title of a book, journal, play, newspaper, painting or
long poem should be either italicised or underlined.
7.
There are a number of other
times that italics or underlining should be used. If you want to emphasise
a particular word italics might be appropriate— this should be used
sparingly. Use italics for foreign words. Never italicise or underline
quotes.
8.
The
first word of each new paragraph should be indented.
9. Use
a double hard-return in between paragraphs.
Re-Drafting:
The first draft of your essay should be a time
of free flowing ideas. If you cannot quite think of the right word put
in a substitute or dash. The point at this stage is to let you develop
the ideas that you do have. Of course, you may find like all authors
that you run out of ideas. At this stage recourse to your research notes,
or the books and articles themselves may help. There are few writers
of quality who do not spend a large portion of their time rewriting.
Rather than generally re-reading your essay, you should choose a focus
of revision. Is the spelling correct? Are sentences awkward or obscure?
Do you have sufficient and relevant evidence? Try reading your work
aloud (sometimes when you hear errors they are easier to identify than
if you read them). Re-reading your own material for problems is difficult;
obviously you may not spot mistakes or problems at the time. Completing
an early first draft and leaving it for a few days is a good technique
— you will see it with new eyes.
Why
Reference?
There is no point trying to get you excited about
referencing. Only 1 in a 1000 people are really interested in referencing,
and they inevitably have sad and empty lives. But it is an absolutely
crucial skill at university for a number of reasons. The first reason
is something called Plagiarism.
Plagiarism is when an essay takes large blocks of another person’s text and presents it as its own. Even if you paraphrase the main ideas in your own words and do not reference the source you are guilty of plagiarism. Plagiarism is subject to severe penalty at Australian Catholic University - a second offence will result in expulsion. Plagiarism is difficult to disguise. Remember, academics are familiar with the published works in their area; they will very often know the source you are using. Referencing is your way of saying two things: “look at all the research I have done” and “yes, I am acknowledging the ideas I have borrowed”. It also constructs the author as professional — you have done research, acknowledged it, and your ideas take place in the framework of contemporary discussion.
Referencing
Systems:
There are a number of referencing systems such
as the Harvard system, the American Psychological Association (APA)
standard, and the Modern Language Association (MLA) method. Education
and social sciences often use the Harvard or APA systems, and literature
studies and drama mostly use the MLA method. The Harvard and the APA
systems are very similar, and the MLA is gradually moving towards the
Harvard system. The lecturer will sometimes ask for one of these methods
to be used; others are simply satisfied if you use one in a consistent
manner. You should check with your lecturer to see which system is most
appropriate for his or her discipline. All examples in this brief style
guide are taken from the MLA system.
If you refer to an author’s ideas in the body of your essay the MLA system requires that you cite the author’s surname and the page number. This information is contained in the text, in the sentence and in attached parentheses. The full stop that belongs to the sentence should be positioned after the parenthetical note.
How
Do You Use Quotes?
Few students come to university knowing how to
quote, so don’t be intimidated — everyone has to learn. The most important
point about referencing is that it allows you to provide evidence to
support your position. For example, if you are arguing that Peruvian
wealth distribution is unequal you may wish to use a direct quote.
| EXAMPLE It has been argued that “five percent of Peruvians own fifty percent of the country’s wealth” (Quick 32). |
This is a quote that supports your case. It is important that your quote is relevant andthat it is taken from a relatively sophisticated or academic source — The Children’s Picture Book of Peru probably doesn’t count. If you decide to mention the author’s name within the body of the sentence then you do not have to repeat yourself in the parenthetical reference. In such cases, you simply need to include the page number:
| EXAMPLE Brian Quick argued in Peruvian Politics that “five percent of Peruvians own fifty percent of the country’s wealth” (32). |
You do not always have to agree with a critic just because s/he is in print. You might decide to contradict a quoted point of view.
| EXAMPLE Brown argues in Peru: People and Politics that unequal wealth has caused unrest in Peruvian politics (44), but other South American countries have equal disparities in wealth with far more stable politics. |
Formatting
Quotes:
Referencing requires several pieces of information.
The whole point of referencing is so that your reader can find the relevant
section of a work that you have referred to if they want more information.
In the text as I have mentioned the author surname and the page number
are needed. In the list of references more information is needed. In
the text of your essay you can refer to other works in two different
ways. You can paraphrase someone’s ideas or you can use a direct quote.
Both methods require a reference.
Paraphrasing:
In the text, the only pieces of information which
are necessary are the author’s name and the page. There are a number
of ways to format this.
| EXAMPLE Fox argues that the people of Peru are disadvantaged by a lack of naturally occurring sea-ports (33). |
In this format you don’t have to repeat the author’s name in the parentheses as you have already got it in the sentence. Or you can do it this way:
| EXAMPLE It has been argued that the people of Peru are disadvantaged by a lack of naturally occurring sea-ports (Fox 33). |
If you are paraphrasing a general argument an author has made, rather than specific pages, then a page reference is not necessary.
Direct
Quotes:
In short quotes each word which is directly quoted
should be encased in double quotation marks. ‘Short quotes’ are quotations
that run for less than four lines of printed text within your paper.
| EXAMPLE The representatives of the worker groups were “systematically oppressed and occasionally killed by the military acting on government orders” (Jumpe 45). |
Long
quotes should be indented from the body of your essay 2.5cm on either
side and should not have quotation marks — the fact that they are indented
identifies them as quotations. They are usually prefaced with a colon.
A ‘long quote’ is one that runs for more than four lines within your
text.
| EXAMPLE Historians have noted that many human rights atrocities were condoned by the government: The representatives of the worker groups were systematically oppressed and occasionally killed by the military acting on government orders. The labour unions were banned, and those demanding better working conditions were ruthlessly dealt with. The middle classes reacted with horror to the excesses of the military but few had the courage to object. (Jumpe 45-46) The increasing power of the military made many of the middle class emigrate to neighbouring countries. |
Referencing Tricky Bits:
1.
Multiple Authors
The first time you quote Ronald Over, Beatrice
Thee and Stuart Lazee’s Peruvian Politics and Paradoxes (1997)
you should include the names of all the authors. Subsequent references
should be shortened to Over et al. (1997).
2.
Quoting a Secondary Source
If you are quoting someone who is in turn quoting
someone else you need to note the secondary source as well as the one
you are using.
| EXAMPLE This was originally considered an absurd idea by Dorg (qtd. in Quick 3). |
In
this example you have been reading Quick’s book which has quoted Dorg.
3.
Integration
The greatest problem student essays have with quotes
is integrating them into student sentences. Do not just let a quote
sit by itself, as if by producing it you have proved something. It must
be introduced, explained and put into the context of your essay. Grammatically
quotes should be integrated into your sentence. The above long quote
is an example of how to introduce a long quote. Remember, the grammar
of the sentence must still be correct; in other words, your part of
the sentence must grammatically work with the first sentence of the
quote. Integrating quotes is really worth working on — it makes your
essay smoother and more sophisticated.
4.
Changes to Quotations
You may remove the capital of the first letter
of your quote’s sentence, but any other changes you make should be signified
using square brackets. If you want to omit an irrelevant sentence or
part of a sentence in the middle of a long quote you can use an ellipsis
to signify this. Oh, an ellipsis is one of these things …
The worst thing you can do with a quote is try to make it into a paragraph. Paragraphs wholly composed of other people’s ideas are not impressive. It is much better to integrate your quotations into your work to make it clear that you understand what the other author is saying and using his/her work intelligently to advance your argument.
List
of References:
Having referenced (Quick 34) is not much good to
the reader if you don’t tell them what Quick has written. The list of
references or bibliography should make it easy for your reader to find
the work that you are talking about. A list of references should be
in alphabetical order, according to the first letter of the surname.
The list should never be numbered.
Books/Plays/Novels:
Required
information:
1.
full name of author,
2.
title in italics,
3.
place of publication,
4.
publisher,
5.
date of publication.
| EXAMPLE Farmer, Peter. The Llama Crisis 1963-65. Lima: Peru Publishing, 1992. Jones, Kelly, and Frank Hammers. Twentieth Century South American Politics. London: Routledge, 1987 . |
If you have multiple books by the same author, you replace the author’s name with 3 dashes at the start of the second entry. You place the entries in alphabetical order according to the first letter of the title:
| EXAMPLE Farmer, Peter. The Llama Crisis 1963-65. Lima: Peru Publishing, 1992. ---. Peru’s Political Climate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. |
Notice
that you do not count the words ‘The’ or ‘A’ when considering the alphabetical
order of works.
Journal
Articles:
Required
information:
1.
full name of author,
2.
title of article in double
inverted commas,
3.
title of larger work in
italics,
4.
volume number,
5.
issue number (if it has
one),
6.
year (in parentheses followed
by a colon),
7.
page numbers.
| EXAMPLE Squeals, Warren, and Bruce Loudly. “Natural Resources and Maldistribution in Peru, 1988-92.” Ecological Politics 3.17, (1998): 120-132. Witch, Billy. “The Revolutionary Moment in Peruvian Politics.” South American Review 2 (1996): 67-89. |
An Edited Book:
| EXAMPLE Beat, Tom, ed. The Military in Peru. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. |
If you want to refer to only one article within this edited book:
| EXAMPLE Slap, Max. “Guns and Government: Peru’s Army.” The Military in Peru. Ed. Tom Beat. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. 77-93. |
Newspaper Article:
| EXAMPLE Jones, Timothy. “Movement in Peruvian Politics.” New York Times 3 Apr. 1996: 17. |
The MLA Handbook recommends the following abbreviations for the months of the year:
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Do not use these abbreviations in the body of your essay. They are only used in your bibliography or in parenthetical references.
No
Authors:
You
may find that some works, such as government publications have no listed
authors. In this case the name of the department or agency is listed.
| EXAMPLE Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Peru in Turmoil. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 1992. Department of Education. Teaching American History. Queensland: V.R. Ward, Government Printer, 1994. |
Electronic
Sources:
Given that electronic material can change frequently
it is important to cite both the stated date of the creation of the
document and the date that you accessed the material. At present, the
best way to identify a particular page on the World Wide Web is to state
its URL. The 1999 edition of the MLA Handbook recommends using
the URL in all citations for online works. URLs should be enclosed
in angle brackets. Some pages do not include all of the necessary details.
When this occurs, it is important to cite whatever details are available.
Examples of suitable referencing strategies for some of the most useful
types of online sources are provided here:
An Online Scholarly Project, Information Database, or
Professional or Personal Site:
You need to include the following items:
1.
Title of the project or
database (underlined or italics)
2.
Name of the editor of the
project or database (if given)
3.
Electronic publication
information (including version number), date of electronic publication
(or latest update), and name of any sponsoring organisation
4.
Date of access and network
address
| EXAMPLE CNN Interactive. 19 June 1998. Cable News Network. 19 June 1998 http://www.cnn.com/ . The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 2001. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 14 Feb. 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/>. |
An Online Book:
You need to include the following items:
1.
Author’s name.
2.
Title of the work (underlined
or italics)
3.
Name of editor, compiler,
or translator
4.
Electronic publication
information, date of electronic publication (or latest update), and
name of any sponsoring organisation. Also state the publication details
of the original print version if they are given in the source.
5.
Date of access and network
address
| EXAMPLE Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Ed. Henry Churchyard. 1996. 10 Sept. 1998 <http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/pridprej.html>. |
An Article in an Online Periodical:
You need to include the following items:
1.
Author’s name.
2.
Title of the work (in double
inverted commans)
3.
Name of the periodical
4.
Volume number and/or issue
number
5.
Date of publication
6.
The number range or total
number of pages, paragraphs, or other sections, if they are numbered
7.
Date of access and network
address
| EXAMPLE Calabrese, Michael. “Between Despair and Ecstasy: Marco Polo’s life of the Buddha.” Exemplaria. 9.1 (1997). 22 June. 1998 <http://web.english.ufl.edu/english/exemplaria.calax.htm>. |
There are many other sources which present peculiar difficulties in referencing. Your main aim should be to make sure that the important information is included and that the list of references is consistent in so doing. If you need more details for complicated reference items then you should consult the fifth edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Paper. Your list of references should be only those books you have used. Few lecturers are impressed by fantastically inflated bibliographies.
The material below has been designed to give you
a sample of what your completed bibliography should look like. Certain
aspects of this bibliography will become apparent to you immediately:
1.
The list is unnumbered;
2.
It is in alphabetical order;
3.
The second line of the
entry is indented;
4.
There are no subdivisions
within the bibliography; and
5.
Primary material is integrated
with secondary sources.
Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Ed. Henry Churchyard. 1996. 10 Sept. 1998 <http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/pridprej.html>.
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Peru in Turmoil. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 1992.
Beat, Tom, ed. The Military in Peru. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
Calabrese, Michael. “Between Despair and Ecstasy: Marco Polo’s life of the Buddha.” Exemplaria. 9.1 (1997). 22 June. 1998 <http://web.english.ufl.edu/english/exemplaria.calax.htm>.
CNN Interactive. 19 June 1998. Cable News Network. 19 June 1998 http://www.cnn.com/.
Department of Education. Teaching American History. Queensland: V.R. Ward, Government Printer, 1994.
The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 2001. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 14 Feb. 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/>.
Farmer, Peter. The Llama Crisis 1963-65. Lima: Peru Publishing, 1992.
---. Peru’s Political Climate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Jones, Timothy. “Movement in Peruvian Politics.” New York Times 3 Apr. 1996: 17.
Slap, Max. “Guns and Government: Peru’s Army.” The Military in Peru. Ed. Tom Beat. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. 77-93.
Squeals, Warren, and Bruce Loudly. “Natural Resources and Maldistribution in Peru, 1988-92.” Ecological Politics 3.17, (1998): 120-132.
Witch, Billy. “The Revolutionary Moment in Peruvian Politics.” South American Review 2 (1996): 67-89.
-
The essay should have a well defined topic and should answer the set question.
-
Spelling, grammar and general presentation should be excellent.
- The essay should have an argument - that is, a case which is put forward with logical rigour supported by evidence.
- Quotes and paraphrasing should be used to support your case, not to make it.
- Referencing should be consistent and include the appropriate details.